Stimuli-responsive nanodiamonds for precision pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and drug delivery applications.

Nanodiamonds (NDs) have emerged as versatile and promising nanocarriers in pharmacological applications, attributed to their distinctive physicochemical characteristics such as tunable size, customizable surface chemistry, and outstanding biocompatibility. These properties have allowed NDs to be explored extensively across various nanomedicine and biomedical research domains. Despite the significant promise of NDs, a comprehensive understanding of their biodistribution, pharmacokinetics (PK), and pharmacodynamics (PD) remains limited. This review systematically summarizes the critical factors influencing the PK and PD profiles of NDs, highlighting recent advances in their design and functionalization. Particular attention is given to the development of stimuli-responsive NDs that can actively respond to endogenous triggers such as pH, ionic concentrations, hypoxia, and enzymatic activity, as well as exogenous triggers including temperature and light. The integration of dual stimuli-responsive strategies further expands the potential applications of NDs for controlled and targeted drug delivery. Collectively, these advancements underscore the evolving role of NDs as next-generation therapeutic platforms with significant potential to enhance precision and efficacy in drug delivery systems.