Severe reprotoxicity of organometallic photovoltaic perovskites on Caenorhabditis elegans assessed by high-content in vivo microfluidics.

As new industrial materials emerge, rapid high-content approaches are needed to identify potential health hazards before large-scale deployment. Here, we use an microfluidic platform to evaluate the toxicity of two benchmark photovoltaic perovskites, CHNHPbI and CHNHSnI, in , a widely used model in soil toxicology. Under physiological S-medium, both materials rapidly formed polydisperse particles. Toxicity was strongly size-dependent: small-particle fractions induced clear, dose-responsive effects on viability, growth, and reproduction-with reproductive endpoints the most sensitive-whereas larger particles (>200 nm), approaching or exceeding the oral opening of , produced minimal effects under continuous perfusion. These results show that ingestion or internalization is required for the observed adverse outcomes, implying that the particle-size threshold for hazard will vary across species with distinct anatomical constraints. Overall, this study provides quantitative benchmarks (including NOAELs) relevant for environmental risk assessment and design-for-safety, and highlights the need to account for bioavailable particle-size fractions-not only bulk chemical composition-when evaluating the real-world impacts of high-performance perovskites.