Enhancing Multi-Factor Authentication with Templateless 2D/3D Biometrics and PUF Integration for Securing Smart Devices

Secure authentication in smart device ecosystems remains a critical challenge, particularly due to the irrevocability of compromised biometric templates in server-based systems. This paper presents a post-quantum secure multi-factor authentication protocol that combines templateless 2D and 3D facial biometrics, liveness detection, and Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) to achieve robust identity assurance. The protocol exhibits zero-knowledge properties, preventing adversaries from identifying whether authentication failure is due to the biometric, password, PUF, or liveness factor. The proposed protocol utilizes advanced facial landmark detection via dlib or mediapipe, capturing multi-angle facial data and mapping it. By applying a double-masking technique and measuring distances between randomized points, stabilized facial landmarks are selected through multiple images captured during enrollment to ensure template stability. The protocol creates high-entropy cryptographic keys, securely erasing all raw biometric data and sensitive keys immediately after processing. All key cryptographic operations and challenge-response exchanges employ post-quantum algorithms, providing resistance to both classical and quantum adversaries. To further enhance reliability, advanced error-correction methods mitigate noise in biometric and PUF responses, resulting in minimal FAR and FRR that meets industrial standards and resilience against spoofing. Our experimental results demonstrate this protocol’s suitability for smart devices and IoT deployments requiring high-assurance, scalable, and quantum-resistant authentication.